Are feminist men dangerous?
The importance of "alternative" masculinities in the fight against gender inequality
It may seem that new societies have been passing through the traditional "masculinity" patterns for years and have reached the new types of masculinity. That is, the patterns used to represent men that are often equipped with knowledge, intellectualism, rationality and high levels of tolerance, as well as increasingly trying to gender equality values. However, some feminist researchers believe that there is a tendency to observe equality values, mild behaviours, and defending women's rights only in men whose behaviours can be redefined within the framework of "alternative masculinity".
One area of developing the feminist research in recent decades is the focus on the role of men and the various patterns of masculinity which separates feminist research from previous facile research based on the polarization of femininity and masculinity. In contrast to previous studies that described a single image of the gendered system of power, in which women were only in a lower position and men were only in a higher position; new research has looked at the diversity of masculinity patterns and the different positions of men as both abusers and victims. Raewyn Connell, the Australian sociologist, who is the most influential theorist and researcher in terms of men and masculinity (Messerschmidt, 2000 ; Gla¨ser , 2004 ;Wedgwood, 2004) has emphasized on the relationship between masculinity and gender equality instead of masculinity alone. The paper ‘Toward a new sociology of masculinity’ written by Carrigan, Connell and Lee in 1985 veritably represents a feminist approach to study masculinity vs. the men’s liberation studies of the 1970s , and it overcomes the social determinism of sex-role theory, which had dominated sociological research on men since the 1950s (Wedgwoo, 2004). During the 1970s, Connell’s focus was on class structure in Australian politics, culture and history. Later, Connell was the first theorist who spoke of masculinity in order to explore gender relations, noting that masculinities are multiple, and they change in history (Connell, 1995). Connell talks about “masculinities” rather than just “masculinity” as she believes that changes in gender relations over history have led to far reaching changes in the types of masculinity. Hegemony, subordination, cooperation and marginalization are the main practices which structure masculinity in western modern culture (Connell, 1995). Accordingly, Connell distinguishes four different categories of masculinity:
- Hegemonic masculinity is the idealized way of being a man which requires women to be subordinate to men. Connell emphasizes that it is a small group of all men leading positions in business and the public sectors who have represented hegemonic masculinity.
- Subordinate masculinity means masculinity that are culturally, economically, legally and politically excluded. Homosexual men, those men who are "soft", child-oriented and cross the line between the male and female roles, are often regarded as "feminine" and as subordinate to other men. These men may have the least hegemonic attitude in family relationships.
- The participating masculinity means the negotiating men. The reason for this is that in everyday life these men constantly must negotiate with women and other men, which leads to changes in the construction of masculinity.
- Marginalized masculinity is related to class and race / ethnicity and is linked to the authorization of the hegemonic masculinity of the dominant group (Connell, 1995).
This categorization was criticized as a deterministic analysis of masculinity and underestimating oppositional / alternative masculinities. Even, Connell’s claim that violence maintains hegemonic masculinity is also problematic and provides a simplified picture of the connection between violence and hegemonic masculinity, as some research show that the men who use the most violence rarely belong to the dominant and hegemonic classes (Hall, 2002). Johansson (2000, 2020) in his critique of Connell's description of variations of masculinity drew attention to another type, namely the oppositional masculinity. This type of masculinity is characterized by close cooperation with women and a critical attitude to the dominant male structures in society. Oppositional masculinity, known as "alternative masculinity" and pro-feminist men, represents a different portrayal of the masculinity based on the try to follow the emancipation, gender equality and equal structures. A combination of greater power resources for women, good socio-economic conditions and better welfare, higher education, an increased degree of norm-critical awareness, active antidiscrimination and gender equality policy can strengthen alternative masculinity as a model for the new masculinity (Johansson, 2000,2020).
Regardless of how the concept of "feminist man" is close to reality; two groups in Iranian society and community have more critical reaction to this concept than others. First, a group of women who are concerned about feminism and women's rights, and second, men who reproduce the patterns of traditional masculinity.
The arguments of first group are probably close to the approach of radical feminists, which separates the world of men and women because of the biological and structural differences of the gender system of power and believe that men can never understand the situation and conditions of women, so there will be no equal relationship between men and women. Accordingly, until patriarchal structures are completely disappeared, men cannot be good defenders for women's rights because the equality between men and women is essentially no more. From such a perspective, women have priority in promoting feminist activities, and the "global sisterhood" will be far more effective than men’s activities in feminism.
In response to these arguments, it can be said that new approaches to feminism are no longer only to the issue of "gender" as the only important factor in discrimination and inequality, but they consider different conditions of age, racial, sexual orientation, social class and ability/disability as much as gender in explaining the inequality in society. Accordingly, being a "woman" cannot be a reason for being oppressed, as being "man" does not necessarily mean being violent.
From the perspective of second group’s argument, any kind of behaviour outside the context of traditional masculinity is considered as a humiliating for men. Therefore, it is enough that a man- even without knowing equality values and defending gender equality- shows mild behaviours in his sexual and emotional relationships and will be free of violence, in that case he will not be a "good man". Feminist researchers in the definition of these men refer to "oppressed or subordinate masculinity" who are "soft", child-oriented and cross the line between the male and female roles, are often regarded as "feminine" and as subordinate to other men. These men may have the least hegemonic attitude in family relationships and in they may called as “ZanZalil” in Farsi.
However, according to some gender researchers, what can lead to increased gender equality in society is first to strengthen the position of women and increase their power; And second, changing patterns of masculinity. This means that society must move to promote those who believe in equal relationships and equal rights for all - with different gender and sexual orientation. Research in women's studies and men's studies show that younger men and women are more inclined to equality values and are more prepared to change this path.
Reference:
Connell, Raewyn (1995) Masculinities. University of California Press, Berkeley.
Gla¨ser, Jochen (2004) ‘Why are the most influential books in Australian sociology not necessarily the most highly cited ones?’ Journal of sociology, 40, 261–282.
Johansson, Thomas (2020) ’Makten, härligheten och kärleken’ .Journal of Social Sciences.Vol 7 Nr 1-2
Johansson, Thomas (2000) ‘Det första könet?: mansforskning som reflexivt projekt’. Lund: Studentlitteratur.
Messerschmidt, James (2000) Nine lives: adolescent masculinities, the body, and violence. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Wedgwood, Nikki (2004) Keepin’ it real: an interview with R.W. Connell. Nexus, 16, 5–6.
